Ph.D. in Agricultural Management


Nell, W. T. 1998.  Transfer and adoption of technology: The case of sheep and goat farmers in Qwaqwa. Ph.D. in Agricultural Management.
Chapter 1: Introduction review
Technology transfer and development is not a new concept, it has been around since mankind discovered things that they did not know before (Finlayson, 1995).  A farmer is a rational decision-maker who normally strives for a better standard of living and seeks ways of adopting new technologies to accomplish this goal.  Issues surrounding the relationship between differences in spatial location of farming activities, land utilisation patterns, the costs of adopting new technologies, costs of obtaining inputs, output services (markets) and information on new technologies, date back to the early nineteenth century. Johann Heinrich von Thünen, a German landowner and economist, developed a model in 1826 distinguishing between farmers located in concentric circles closer and further away from service and information centres (market places).  He concluded that as farmers are located further away from these centres, the total production costs increase, due to increased transaction costs to obtain inputs, services and information, and the realised income from agricultural products decreases (price obtained at the market minus transaction costs) (Barlowe, 1978).
The adoption of new agricultural technologies has attracted considerable attention from development economists because the majority of populations in less developed countries derive most of their livelihoods from agricultural production (Feder, Just & Zilberman, 1985).  Larson and Frisvold (1996) came to the conclusion that traditional extensive cropping systems are not sustainable and contribute to a large extent to the present state of soil degradation and poverty of farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa where, according to the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO, 1995), at present more than one-third of its human population is classified as chronically under-nourished. In cases where new technologies were not adopted, the per capita cereal production in Sub-Saharan Africa declined at an average annual rate of over one percent between 1961 and 1991 (Sanders, Shapiro  & Ramaswamy, 1996).
Chapter 2: Literature review
Chapter 3: Description of models and variables used
In this chapter the methods used to analyse adoption and levels (categories) ov livestock veterinary technologies are discussed.  The methods used with the selection of the variables, their justification, as well as the way the data was collected, analysed and modelled will also be attended to in this chapter.
In the first section of this chapter a short justification of the different dependent variables and a conceptualisation of the explanatory variables are given.  This is followed by a short description of the survey, which includes a short discussion of the study area, sources of information used, the development of the questionnaire, the sampling technique used and the data collection.  The chapter concludes with a description of how the data was processed, which includes the methods followed in the selection of the possible predictors and a brief description is given on the discrete choice models used in this study with the determination of predictors.
Chapter 4: Background of the study area
In order to understand the factors and circumstances that determine the decision to adopt a new technology, it is important to get a general and integrated overview of the area in which the dependent and the explanatory variables are tested. Both Old and New Qwaqwa are mainly livestock producing areas.  To ensure a sustainable livestock production system, the use of veterinary surgeon services and a correct use of medication technologies are essential to the small ruminant farmer (Naude, 1998).  The non-adoption of medication technologies usually results in poor reproduction levels and high mortality rates (Schwalbach, 1998).  It is therefore important to take a look at the natural resources available to the small ruminant farmers and to evaluate the effect of the quality of these resources on herd health.  
The intention with this chapter is to give a short historical as well as a geographical background on Qwaqwa. This will be followed by a brief discussion of the land tenure systems, as well as an overview of the agricultural potential, infrastructure and level of institutions in Qwaqwa.  In the forth section the diffusion programmes used in the past with regard to the transfer of small ruminant veterinary and medication technologies will be discussed.
Chapter 5: Description of surveyed data
The characteristics of farmers within the area where the adoption of new technologies are analysed, is important. It is also important to know to what extent the farmers are susceptible to new ideas and technologies and to what extent they were exposed to these technologies before. The external environment (conditions) and resources available to these farmers must be investigated to be included into the diffusion programmes. The flow of information is a further important link in the diffusion process. On the one side is the sender (extension officers, co-farmers, the media, and family) of the message about new technologies and on the other side the farmers who are the recipients of the information (message) on new technologies within the specific characteristics of these farmers and the infrastructure as well as the location (Von Thünen's theory) that will determine the rate and level of adoption.
To understand the total environment in which technologies must be exploited, it is important to analyse the demographic information (human capital endowments), attitude towards risk, availability and accessibility as well as the functioning of extension services, infrastructure and institutions as well as the information on the adoption of small ruminant veterinary technologies. The data described in this chapter is derived from the survey done in Qwaqwa.
Chapter 6: Adoption of veterinary surgeon services
Diseases and parasites form one of the main constraints to sheep and goat production. The economic losses due to diseases and parasites are considerably high, especially in densely populated areas with poor nutritional grazing value, and where veterinary and diagnostic services are weak (Devendra & McLeroy, 1982).  Animal disease control in developing countries has been universally the concern of government and public service (Wilson & Lebbie, 1996).
The veterinary surgeon is the best qualified professional who, when integrated in an extension network service with experienced extension and health officers, can control diseases and parasites by using modern medication technologies. These livestock technologies must be progressively adopted and mastered by livestock farmers, with the help of extension or animal health officers under close supervision of a veterinary surgeon.
Chapter 7: Adoption of medication technologies
The correct usage of medication technologies is an important factor for the success of any livestock farming activity, as disease and high mortality are major constraints on livestock production in Southern Africa (McKinnon, 1985).  In a survey done amongst commercial sheep farmers in the Northern Free State, North and North-Western Cape it was found that internal parasites, diseases and external parasites were the most important problems in sheep production systems (Joubert, Van Wyk & De Wet, 1994).  They also found that these farmers regard internal parasites of which the effects are visible, as most important and react accordingly.
In the past the veterinary surgeon, as well as the extension and animal health officers in Qwaqwa, played an important role in the diffusion of livestock medication technologies. They regularly visited the sheering sheds where they supplied the farmers with medication remedies and vaccines recommended for that area, at a subsidised or reduced price. Farmers were also informed on the importance and correct use of prophylactic medication such as vaccines as well as its economical importance.  Farmers regularly received instruction in the use and practical application of these medication technologies which enabled them to become independent. After being withdrawn from the area in 1994, these diffusion programmes came to a standstill.  
Chapter 8: Summary, conclusions and recommendations
During the literature study it became evident that there is ample literature available on crop technology transfer and adoption, but that research done on livestock technology transfer and adoption is rather scarce.  To overcome this barrier it was decided to construct a panel of livestock veterinary specialists, consisting of veterinarians, animal scientists and extension officers (some from former Qwaqwa), to assist with the defining of the different categories of adoption and also the identification of variables that may contribute to the adoption of livestock veterinary technologies.
In this study possible predictors for the adoption of livestock veterinary technologies were identified by means of presenting significant differences (p-values 0,15) between the various adoption groups and then fitted into logit models.  Seven logit models were fitted for the different adoption groups of veterinary surgeon services, external and internal parasite remedies, antibiotics and vaccine technologies and an additional multinomial logit model was fitted for internal parasite remedies, using the predictors of the previous logit models for internal parasite remedies as possible predictors.  The results of the multinomial logit model were similar to those of the two logit models. Only the results of the logit model will therefore be discussed.
Annexure A: Questionnaire